France, England, and the United States administered sectors of the city of Berlin, deep inside communist East Germany. When the Soviets cut off all road and rail traffic to the city in 1948, the United States and Great Britain responded with a massive airlift that supplied the besieged city for 231 days until the blockade was lifted. In 1949, the United States joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), the first mutual security and military alliance in American history. The establishment of NATO also spurred the Soviet Union to create an alliance with the communist governments of Eastern Europe that was formalized in 1955 by the Warsaw Pact.
first world war history in urdu pdf download
John F. Kennedy was the first American president born in the 20th century. The Cold War and the nuclear arms race with the Soviet Union were vital international issues throughout his political career. His inaugural address stressed the contest between the free world and the communist world, and he pledged that the American people would "pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe to assure the survival and success of liberty."
The most infamous episode of the age was the Fourth Crusade (1202-04) which saw another effort to recover Jerusalem end up sacking Constantinople, the greatest Christian city in the world. Jonathan Phillips describes this episode. The reasons for this were a combination of long-standing tensions between the Latin (Catholic) Church and the Greek Orthodox; the need for the crusaders to fulfil the terms of a wildly over-optimistic contract for transportation to the Levant with the Venetians and the offer to pay this off by a claimant to the Byzantine throne. This combination of circumstances brought the crusaders to the walls of Constantinople and when their young candidate was murdered and the locals turned definitively against them they attacked and stormed the city. At first Innocent was delighted that Constantinople was under Latin authority but as he learned of the violence and looting that had accompanied the conquest he was horrified and castigated the crusaders for 'the perversion of their pilgrimage'.
Time and again, human beings have believed that they finally arrived at a period of enlightenment only to repeat, then, cycles of conflict and suffering. Perhaps that's our fate. We have to remember that the choices of individual human beings led to repeated world war. But we also have to remember that the choices of individual human beings created a United Nations, so that a war like that would never happen again. Each of us as leaders, each nation can choose to reject those who appeal to our worst impulses and embrace those who appeal to our best. For we have shown that we can choose a better history.
By the late 1930s there was no doubt that in all the avian malaria parasites studied there was a phase of multiplication in various nucleated cells before (and after) parasites appeared in the blood and over the next decade the complete life cycles of a number of avian Plasmodium and Haemoproteus species, differing only in detail particularly relating to the types of cells involved which varied from species to species, had been worked out. What happened in primates was not so clear and during the 1930s and 1940s there were sporadic reports of parasites in the tissues, particularly in the brain and nervous system, of animals infected with primate and bat malarias. After the end of the Second World War in 1945 malaria research throughout the world intensified and a number of workers became convinced that that there must be an exoerythrocytic stage in the life cycle of the primate malarias but what form this took was not known. This question was not resolved until 1947 when Henry Shortt and Cyril Garnham, working in London, showed that a phase of division in the liver preceded the development of parasites in the blood [46]. The crucial clues came from studies on Hepatocystis kochi, another parasite of monkeys first identified by Laveran as Haemamoeba kochi. Hepatocystis spp. are related to malaria parasites but do not have an erythrocytic stage in their life cycles so these parasites must have only an exoerythrocytic stage which in H. kochi is in the parenchyma cells of the liver [47]. This suggested to Shortt, Garnham and their colleagues that the liver might be the place to look for the elusive exoerythrocytic stages of primate malaria parasites and selected P. cynomolgi in rhesus monkeys for their investigations. Previous attempts by other workers had failed to find any liver forms so Shortt and Garnham decided to use 500 infected A. maculipennis atroparvus, a massive dose of sporozoites, and found exoerythrocytic stages seven days later [48]. Shortly afterwards Shortt, Garnham and their co-workers found exoerythrocytic forms of P. vivax in human volunteers [49] and subsequently in volunteers infected with P. falciparum in 1949 [50] and P. ovale in 1954 [51]. In the meantime the same team had also demonstrated exoerythrocytic stages of P. inui, a quartan form of primate malaria. The exoerythrocytic stages of P. malariae were more elusive and it was not until 1960 that Robert (Bill) Bray demonstrated their presence in experimentally infected chimpanzees [52]. The story of the discovery of the exoerythrocytic forms of malaria parasites until 1957 is told in some detail by Bray [44] and updated until 1966 by Garnham [6]. 2ff7e9595c
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